Some cities of Russia are connected with some cities of Ukraine with international airlines. The Interstate Council for the Promotion of Migration intends to introduce a one-way traffic on each airline so that, by taking off from the city, it could no longer be returned in this city (using other one-way airlines). Prove that the number of ways to do this is not divided by .
Solution
To prove that the number of ways to introduce a one-way traffic on each airline such that no city can be returned to (using other one-way airlines) is not divisible by 3, we can use the properties of the chromatic polynomial of a bipartite graph.
1. Restate the problem in graph theory terms:
We are given a bipartite graph and need to show that the number of acyclic orientations of is not a multiple of 3. It is known that the number of acyclic orientations of a graph is given by , where is the chromatic polynomial of .
2. Chromatic polynomial evaluation:
The chromatic polynomial of a graph counts the number of ways to color the vertices of with colors such that no two adjacent vertices share the same color. For a bipartite graph , the chromatic polynomial can be evaluated at specific points to derive properties about the graph.
3. **Evaluate :**
We need to show that . To do this, we use the known result that for a bipartite graph , .
4. **Evaluate :**
For a bipartite graph , the chromatic polynomial evaluated at 2, , counts the number of ways to color the graph with 2 colors. Since is bipartite, it can be colored with 2 colors in exactly ways, where is the number of connected components of .
5. Modulo 3 calculation:
Since , we need to evaluate . Note that:
Therefore, modulo 3 alternates between 2 and 1 depending on whether is odd or even.
6. Conclusion:
Since or , it follows that is never divisible by 3. Hence, .
7. Final step:
Since , and , it follows that .