Problem 1989

Answer: All odd integers and all powers of $2$.

If $n=2^{k} a$, where $a \geqslant 3$ is odd and $k$ is a positive integer, we can consider a set containing the number $2^{k}+1$ and $n-1$ numbers congruent to $1$ modulo $n$. The sum of these numbers is congruent to $2^{k}$ modulo $n$ and therefore is not divisible by $n$; for any permutation $\left(a_{1}, a_{2}, \ldots, a_{n}\right)$ of these numbers
$$1 \cdot a_{1}+2 \cdot a_{2}+\cdots+n \cdot a_{n} \equiv 1+\cdots+n \equiv 2^{k-1} a\left(2^{k} a+1\right) \not \equiv 0 \quad\left(\bmod 2^{k}\right)$$
and a fortiori $1 \cdot a_{1}+2 \cdot a_{2}+\cdots+n \cdot a_{n}$ is not divisible by $n$.

From now on, we suppose that $n$ is either odd or a power of $2$. Let $S$ be the given set of integers, and $s$ be the sum of elements of $S$.

Lemma 1. If there is a permutation $\left(a_{i}\right)$ of $S$ such that $(n, s)$ divides $\sum_{i=1}^{n} i a_{i}$, then there is a permutation $\left(b_{i}\right)$ of $S$ such that $n$ divides $\sum_{i=1}^{n} i b_{i}$.

Proof. Let $r=\sum_{i=1}^{n} i a_{i}$. Consider the permutation $\left(b_{i}\right)$ defined by $b_{i}=a_{i+x}$, where $a_{j+n}=a_{j}$. For this permutation, we have
$$\sum_{i=1}^{n} i b_{i}=\sum_{i=1}^{n} i a_{i+x} \equiv \sum_{i=1}^{n}(i-x) a_{i} \equiv r-s x \quad(\bmod n)$$
Since $(n, s)$ divides $r$, the congruence $r-s x \equiv 0(\bmod n)$ admits a solution.

Lemma 2. Every set $T$ of $k m$ integers, $m>1$, can be partitioned into $m$ sets of $k$ integers so that in every set either the sum of elements is not divisible by $k$ or all the elements leave the same remainder upon division by $k$.

Proof. The base case, $m=2$. If $T$ contains $k$ elements leaving the same remainder upon division by $k$, we form one subset $A$ of these elements; the remaining elements form a subset $B$. If $k$ does not divide the sum of all elements of $B$, we are done. Otherwise it is enough to exchange any element of $A$ with any element of $B$ not congruent to it modulo $k$, thus making sums of both $A$ and $B$ not divisible by $k$. This cannot be done only when all the elements of $T$ are congruent modulo $k$; in this case any partition will do.

If no $k$ elements of $T$ have the same residue modulo $k$, there are three elements $a, b, c \in T$ leaving pairwise distinct remainders upon division by $k$. Let $t$ be the sum of elements of $T$. It suffices to find $A \subset T$ such that $|A|=k$ and $\sum_{x \in A} x \not \equiv 0, t(\bmod k)$: then neither the sum of elements of $A$ nor the sum of elements of $B=T \backslash A$ is divisible by $k$. Consider $U^{\prime} \subset T \backslash\{a, b, c\}$ with $\left|U^{\prime}\right|=k-1$. The sums of elements of three sets $U^{\prime} \cup\{a\}, U^{\prime} \cup\{b\}, U^{\prime} \cup\{c\}$ leave three different remainders upon division by $k$, and at least one of them is not congruent either to $0$ or to $t$.

Now let $m>2$. If $T$ contains $k$ elements leaving the same remainder upon division by $k$, we form one subset $A$ of these elements and apply the inductive hypothesis to the remaining $k(m-1)$ elements. Otherwise, we choose any $U \subset T,|U|=k-1$. Since all the remaining elements cannot be congruent modulo $k$, there is $a \in T \backslash U$ such that $a \not \equiv-\sum_{x \in U} x(\bmod k)$. Now we can take $A=U \cup\{a\}$ and apply the inductive hypothesis to $T \backslash A$.

Now we are ready to prove the statement of the problem for all odd $n$ and $n=2^{k}$. The proof is by induction.

If $n$ is prime, the statement follows immediately from Lemma 1, since in this case $(n, s)=1$. Turning to the general case, we can find prime $p$ and an integer $t$ such that $p^{t} \mid n$ and $p^{t} \nmid s$. By Lemma 2, we can partition $S$ into $p$ sets of $\frac{n}{p}=k$ elements so that in every set either the sum of numbers is not divisible by $k$ or all numbers have the same residue modulo $k$.

For sets in the first category, by the inductive hypothesis there is a permutation $\left(a_{i}\right)$ such that $k \mid \sum_{i=1}^{k} i a_{i}$.

If $n$ (and therefore $k$) is odd, then for each permutation $\left(b_{i}\right)$ of a set in the second category we have
$$\sum_{i=1}^{k} i b_{i} \equiv b_{1} \frac{k(k+1)}{2} \equiv 0 \quad(\bmod k)$$
By combining such permutation for all sets of the partition, we get a permutation $\left(c_{i}\right)$ of $S$ such that $k \mid \sum_{i=1}^{n} i c_{i}$. Since this sum is divisible by $k$, and $k$ is divisible by $(n, s)$, we are done by Lemma 1.

If $n=2^{s}$, we have $p=2$ and $k=2^{s-1}$. Then for each of the subsets there is a permutation $\left(a_{1}, \ldots, a_{k}\right)$ such that $\sum_{i=1}^{k} i a_{i}$ is divisible by $2^{s-2}=\frac{k}{2}$: if the subset belongs to the first category, the expression is divisible even by $k$, and if it belongs to the second one,
$$\sum_{i=1}^{k} i a_{i} \equiv a_{1} \frac{k(k+1)}{2} \equiv 0\left(\bmod \frac{k}{2}\right)$$
Now the numbers of each permutation should be multiplied by all the odd or all the even numbers not exceeding $n$ in increasing order so that the resulting sums are divisible by $k$:
$$\sum_{i=1}^{k}(2 i-1) a_{i} \equiv \sum_{i=1}^{k} 2 i a_{i} \equiv 2 \sum_{i=1}^{k} i a_{i} \equiv 0 \quad(\bmod k)$$
Combining these two sums, we again get a permutation $\left(c_{i}\right)$ of $S$ such that $k \mid \sum_{i=1}^{n} i c_{i}$, and finish the case by applying Lemma 1.